Vegetos

---

Research Articles | Published: 31 March, 2026

References

---

Arora S, Singh D, Rajput A, Bhatia A, Kumar A, Kaur H, Sharma P, Kaur P, Singh S, Attri S, Buttar HS, Singh B (2021) Plant-Based Polysaccharides and their Health Functions. Funct Foods Health Disease 11(4):179. https://doi.org/10.31989/ffhd.v11i4.773


Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) (2000) Official methods of analysis of AOAC International (17th ed.), AOAC International.


Baptista NT, Dessalles R, Illner AK, Ville P, Ribet L, Anton PM, Durand-Dubief M (2024) Harnessing the power of resistant starch: a narrative review of its health impact and processing challenges. Front Nutr 11:1369950. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1369950


Baranowska HM, Sikora M, Krystyjan M, Dobosz A, Tomasik P, Walkowiak K, Borczak B (2020) Analysis of the retrogradation processes in potato starches blended with non-starchy polysaccharide hydrocolloids by LF NMR. Food Biophys 15:64–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11483-019-09600-3


Benlarbi F, Stoker P, Yousfi M (2018) Investigation of antioxidant and antihemolytic activities of Algerian defatted olive fruits (olea europaea L.) at two ripening stages. Mediterranean J Nutr Metabolism 11(3):217–23327. https://doi.org/10.3233/MNM-17187


Birt DF, Boylston TD, Hendrich S, Jane J, Hollis J, Li L, McClelland JF, Moore SA, Phillips GJ, Rowling MJ, Schalinske KL, Scott MP, Whitley EM (2013) Resistant Starch: Promise for Improving Human Health. Adv Nutr 4(6):587. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.113.004325


Carciofi M, Blennow A, Jensen SL, Shaik SS, Henriksen A, Buléon A, Holm PB, Hebelstrup KH (2012) Concerted suppression of all starch branching enzyme genes in barley produces amylose-only starch granules. BMC Plant Biol. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2229-12-223


Castro NR, Durrieu V, Raynaud C, Rouilly A, Rigal L, Quellet C (2016) Melt Extrusion Encapsulation of Flavors: A Review [Review of Melt Extrusion Encapsulation of Flavors: A Review]. Polym Rev 56(1):137. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583724.2015.1091776


Chakraborty I, Das B, Govindaraju I, Yamamoto T, Noothalapati H, Managuli V, Mazumder N (2024) Exploring Retrogradation Behavior of Commercial Rice Varieties and Physicochemical Properties of Respective Extracted Starch. ACS Food Sci Technol 4(4):947. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.3c00685


Chakraborty I, Govindaraju I, Kunnel S, Managuli V, Mazumder N (2023) Effect of Storage Time and Temperature on Digestibility, Thermal, and Rheological Properties of Retrograded Rice. Gels 9(2):142. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9020142


Chen M, Lu T (2024) Protein affects the digestibility of starch in rice pasta. Res Square (Research Square). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3880561/v1


Chen W, Wei-bing X, Junejo SA, Feng Y, Gao T, Huang Q, Jiang Y, Zhang B, Jia X, Huang Q (2024) Analytical methods for starch retrogradation assessment. Food Biomacromolecules 1(2):107. https://doi.org/10.1002/fob2.12016


Cho EH, Lee J, In YW, Cho HY (2024) Effects of the hot air roasting process on brown rice moisturized by water–spraying method. Food Chem 464:141630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.141630


Copeland L, Blazek J, Salman H, Tang MC (2009) Form and functionality of starch. Food Hydrocolloids 23(6):1527–1534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2008.09.016


Das M, Dash U, Mahanand SS, Nayak PK, Kesavan RK (2023) Black rice: A comprehensive review on its bioactive compounds, potential health benefits and food applications. Food Chem Adv 3:100462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2023.100462


DeMartino P, Cockburn D (2019) Resistant starch: impact on the gut microbiome and health. Curr Opin Biotechnol 61:66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2019.10.008


Dixit O, Treppe K, Mollekopf N (2011) Energy Consumption during Vacuum Microwave Treatment of Potato Starch: A Phenomenological Model. Chem Eng Technol 34(8):1245. https://doi.org/10.1002/ceat.201100034


Dong Y, Li X, Cui Y, Zhang L, Xuan X, Lv R, Liu X, Ling J, Li S (2024) In vitro digestion, physicochemical and structural properties of rice starch dual-treated with radio frequency dry heating and annealing treatment. Res Square (Research Square). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4370667/v1


Erp, R. J. J. van. (2019) Nutrient yield from starch in pigs : consequences for energy balance and meal patterns. https://doi.org/10.18174/495349


Farooq MA, Yu J (2024) Recent Advances in Physical Processing Techniques to Enhance the Resistant Starch Content in Foods. Rev Foods 13(17):2770. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172770


Fini, E. H., Ayat, S., Pahlavan, F. (2021) Phenolic Compounds in the Built Environment. In: Biochemistry. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98757


Gao Y, Sun Y, Zhang Y, Sun Y, Jin T (2022) Extrusion Modification: Effect of Extrusion on the Functional Properties and Structure of Rice Protein. Processes 10(9):1871. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10091871


Garg D, Singh V, Naidu KA (2010) A comparative study on starch digestibility, glycemic index and resistant starch of pigmented (‘Njavara’ and ‘Jyothi’) and a non-pigmented (‘IR 64’) rice varieties. J Food Sci Technol 47(6):644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-010-0106-1


Goni, I., Garcia-Alonso, A., Saura-Calixto, F. (1997). A starch hydrolysis procedure to estimate glycemic index. Nutrition Res 17(3), 427–437.


Han J, Wu J, Liu X, JianRong S, Xu J (2023) Physiological effects of resistant starch and its applications in food: a review. Food Prod Process Nutr. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-023-00156-x


Hsu RJC, Chen HJ, Lu S, Chiang W (2015) Effects of cooking, retrogradation and drying on starch digestibility in instant rice making. J Cereal Sci 65:154–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2015.05.015


Ito VC, Lacerda LG (2019) Black rice (Oryza sativa L.): A review of its historical aspects, chemical composition, nutritional and functional properties, and applications and processing technologies. Food Chem 301:125304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125304


Jiang F, Du C, Jiang W, Wang L, Du SK (2020) The preparation, formation, fermentability, and applications of resistant starch. Int J Biol Macromol 150:1155–1161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.10.124


Juliano, B. O. (2016) Rice: Chemistry and technology. American Association of Cereal Chemists.


Jung K-J, Lee H-A, Lee SH, Kim JC (2016) Retrogradation of heat-gelatinized rice grain in sealed packaging: investigation of moisture relocation. Food Sci Technol 37(1):97. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-457x.07816


Ke Z, Liu Y, Wang X, Fan Z, Chen G, Xu M, Bower KA, Frank JA, Ou X, Shi X, Luo J (2011) Cyanidin-3‐glucoside ameliorates ethanol neurotoxicity in the developing brain. J Neurosci Res 89(10):1676. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.22689


Khoo HE, Azlan A, Ismail A, Abas F (2012) Antioxidative properties of defatted dabai pulp and peel prepared by solid phase extraction. Molecules 17(8):9754–9773. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules17089754


Kim YS, Lee YM, Kim H et al (2010) Anti-obesity effect of Morus bombycis root extract: anti-lipase activity and lipolytic effect. J Ethnopharmacol 130:621–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.053


Kozłowska A, Dzierżanowski T (2021) Targeting inflammation by anthocyanins as the novel therapeutic potential for chronic diseases: An update. Molecules 26(14):4380. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26144380


Lee JS, Kim YR, Song IG, Ha S, Kim YE, Baek N, Hong EK (2014) Cyanidin-3-glucoside isolated from mulberry fruit protects pancreatic β-cells against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. Int J Mol Med 35(2):405. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2014.2013


Li C, Luo J, Zhang C, Yu W (2020) Causal relations among starch chain-length distributions, short-term retrogradation and cooked rice texture. Food Hydrocolloids 108:106064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106064


Li C, Yu W, Gilbert RG (2022) The Effects of Starch Molecular Fine Structure on Thermal and Digestion Properties of Rice Starch. Foods 11(24):4012. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11244012


Li H, Gilbert RG, Gidley MJ (2021) Molecular-structure evolution during in vitro fermentation of granular high-amylose wheat starch is different to in vitro digestion. Food Chem 362:130188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130188


Li M, Liu C, Zheng X, Li L, Bian K (2020) Physicochemical properties of wheat flour modified by heat-moisture treatment and their effects on noodles making quality. J Food Process Preserv. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14590


Li X, Bai Y, Jin Z, Svensson B (2021) Food-derived non-phenolic α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitors for controlling starch digestion rate and guiding diabetes-friendly recipes. LWT 153:112455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112455


Lian Y, Wei LK, Tan T, Lye HS (2024) Meta-analysis of retrogradation effect on starches of white rice, and comparative study of different cooking oils and cooking methods on in vitro glucose release from white rice. Int Food Res J 31(3):723. https://doi.org/10.47836/ifrj.31.3.16


LimtrakulP, Semmarath W, Mapoung S (2020) Anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins in natural pigmented rice and their bioactivities. In Phytochemicals in Human Health. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86962


Liu X, Chao C, Yu J, Copeland L, Wang S (2021) Mechanistic studies of starch retrogradation and its effects on starch gel properties. Food Hydrocolloids 120:106914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106914


Lü H, Zhan J, Shen W, Ma R, Tian Y (2024) Assessing Starch Retrogradation from the Perspective of Particle Order. Foods 13(6):911. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13060911


Luh, B. S. (2001). Rice production. In G. Owens (Ed.), Cereals processing technology (pp. 98–100). Woodhead Publishing Limited.


Mbanjo EGN, Kretzschmar T, Jones H, Ereful NC, Blanchard C, Boyd LA, Sreenivasulu N (2020) The Genetic Basis and Nutritional Benefits of Pigmented Rice Grain. Front Genet. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2020.00229


Meccariello R, D’Angelo S (2021) Impact of Polyphenolic-Food on Longevity: An Elixir of Life. Overv Antioxid 10(4):507. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10040507


Meneguzzo F, Zabini F, Albanese L, Crisci A (2019) Novel Affordable, Reliable and Efficient Technologies to Help Addressing the Water-Energy-Food Nexus. Eur J Sustainable Dev 8(4):1. https://doi.org/10.14207/ejsd.2019.v8n4p1


Miao L, Xu Y, Jia C, Zhang B, Niu M, Zhao S (2021) Structural changes of rice starch and activity inhibition of starch digestive enzymes by anthocyanins retarded starch digestibility. Carbohydr Polym 261:117841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117841


Nakayoshi Y, Nakamura S, Kameo Y, Shiiba D, Katsuragi Y, Ohtsubo K (2015) Measurement of resistant starch content in cooked rice and analysis of gelatinization and retrogradation characteristics. Bioscience Biotechnol Biochem 79(11):1860. https://doi.org/10.1080/09168451.2015.1044934


Otahara M, Sato Y, Kasai M (2018) Evaluation of Staling of Cooked Rice by Kinetic Analysis of Texture Changes. Food Sci Technol Res 24(3):427. https://doi.org/10.3136/fstr.24.427


Ou SJL, Fu AS, Liu MH (2023) Impact of Starch-Rich Food Matrices on Black Rice Anthocyanin Accessibility and Carbohydrate Digestibility. Foods 12(4):880. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12040880


Ou SJL, Yang D, Pranata HP, Tai ES, Liu MH (2023) Postprandial glycemic and lipidemic effects of black rice anthocyanin extract fortification in foods of varying macronutrient compositions and matrices. Npj Sci Food. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-023-00233-y


Owens, G. (2001) Cereals processing technology. In: Woodhead Publishing Limited eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781855736283


Pedro AC, Granato D, Rosso ND (2015) Extraction of anthocyanins and polyphenols from black rice (Oryza sativa L.) by modeling and assessing their reversibility and stability. Food Chem 191:12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.02.045


Peng B, He L, Tan J, Zheng L, Zhang J, Qiao Q-W, Wang Y, Gao Y, Tian X-Y, Liu Z, Song X, Sun Y, Pang R-H, Li J-T, Yuan H (2019) Effects of Rice Aging on Its Main Nutrients and Quality Characters. J Agric Sci 11(17):44. https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v11n17p44


Priya TS, Nelson ARLE, Ravichandran K, Antony U (2019) Nutritional and functional properties of coloured rice varieties of South India: a review. J Ethnic Foods. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-019-0017-3


Pugh JE, Cai M, Altieri N, Frost G (2023) A comparison of the effects of resistant starch types on glycemic response in individuals with type 2 diabetes or prediabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Nutr. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1118229


Rashwan AK, Al-Sahlany SM, Al-Temimi AA (2024) Resistant starch: A comprehensive review of its sources, health benefits, and applications in food industry. Food Chem Adv 4:100523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2023.100523


Scott G, Awika JM (2023) Effect of protein–starch interactions on starch retrogradation and implications for food product quality. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 22(3):2081–1011111541 https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.13141


Sholikhah U, PARJANTO P, Handoyo T, Yunus A (2021) Anthocyanin Content in Some Black Rice Cultivars. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 709(1):12076. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/709/1/012076


Silva AdosA, Ferreira MVdaS, Lima RHP, Barbosa JL, Moreira LB, Barbosa MIMJ (2020) Chemical characterization of the antioxidant, antihyperglycemic and antihypertensive capacities of red rice (Oryza sativa L.) whole flour. Revista Chil de Nutrición 47(2):238. https://doi.org/10.4067/s0717-75182020000200238


Sonia S, Witjaksono F, Ridwan R (2015) Effect of cooling of cooked white rice on resistant starch content and glycemic response. PubMed 24(4):620. https://doi.org/10.6133/apjcn.2015.24.4.13


Strozyk S, Rogowicz-Frontczak A, Piłaciński S, LeThanh-Blicharz J, Koperska A, Zozulińska‐Ziółkiewicz D (2022) Influence of resistant starch resulting from the cooling of rice on postprandial glycemia in type 1 diabetes. Nutr Diabetes. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41387-022-00196-1


Tang L, Wu J, Aga L, Wang N, Li Y, Li H, Wang X (2024) Structural analysis of type 3 resistant starch from Canna edulis during in vitro simulated digestion and its post-digested residue impact on human gut microbiota. Front Nutr. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1403497


Tsuge H, Hishida M, Iwasaki H, Watanabe S, Goshima G (1990) Enzymatic evaluation for the degree of starch retrogradation in foods and foodstuffs. Starch/Stärke 42(6):213–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.19900420603


Tuncel A, Corbin KR, Ahn-Jarvis J, Harris S, Hawkins E, Smedley MA, Harwood W, Warren FJ, Patron NJ, Smith AM (2019) Cas9‐mediated mutagenesis of potato starch‐branching enzymes generates a range of tuber starch phenotypes. Plant Biotechnol J 17(12):2259. https://doi.org/10.1111/pbi.13137


Villas-Boas F, Facchinatto WM, Colnago LA, Volanti DP, Franco CML (2020) Effect of amylolysis on the formation, the molecular, crystalline and thermal characteristics and the digestibility of retrograded starches. Int J Biol Macromol 163:1333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.07.181


Walter M, da Silva LP, Denardin CC (2005) Rice and resistant starch: different content depending on chosen methodology. J Food Compos Anal 18(4):279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2004.09.007


Wang S, Li C, Copeland L, Niu Q, Wang S (2015) Starch Retrogradation: A Comprehensive Review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 14(5):568. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12143


Wanikar R, Kotwal S (2022) Resistant Starch: A Promising Functional Food Ingredient. In Biochemistry. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101558


Warren FJ, Zhang B, Waltzer G, Gidley MJ, Dhital S (2015) The interplay of α-amylase and amyloglucosidase activities on the digestion of starch in in vitro enzymic systems. Carbohydr Polym 117:192–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.09.043


Witono JR, Juliani J (2019) Improving the resistance starch of rice through physical and enzymatic process. MATEC Web Conferences 268:1007. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201926801007


Wongsa P (2021) Phenolic Compounds and Potential Health Benefits of Pigmented Rice. In IntechOpen eBooks. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93876


Wu LC, Hsu HW, Chen YC, Chiu CC, Lin YI, Ho JAA (2006) Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of red pitaya. Food Chem 95(2):319–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.01.002


Xiao Z, Storms R, Tsang A (2006) A quantitative starch– iodine method for measuring alpha-amylase and glucoamylase activities. Anal Biochem 351:146–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ab.2006.01.036


Yamaguchi Y, Okawa Y, Ninomiya K, Kumagai H, Kumagaı H (2019) Evaluation and Suppression of Retrogradation of Gelatinized Rice Starch. J Nutri Sci Vitaminol. https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.65.s134


Yao S-L, Xu Y, Zhang Y, Lü Y (2013) Black rice and anthocyanins induce inhibition of cholesterol absorption in vitro. Food Funct 4(11):1602. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3fo60196j


Yu L, Turner MS, Fitzgerald M, Stokes JR, Witt T (2016) Review of the effects of different processing technologies on cooked and convenience rice quality. Trends Food Sci Technol 59:124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.11.009


Zhang B, Li X, Wang S, Copeland L (2022) Starch retrogradation: A review of its structural basis and effects on food quality. Food Hydrocolloids 123:107191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107191


Zhang B, Wang S, Copeland L (2023) Interaction of phenolic compounds with starch: A review. Food Hydrocolloids 100:105421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105421


Zięba T, Kapelko-Żeberska M, Gryszkin A, Wilczak A, Raszewski B, Spychaj R (2019) Effect of the Botanical Origin on Properties of RS3/4 Type Resistant Starch. Polymers 11(1):81. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11010081


Zurbó Z, Csapó J (2021) The role of r esistant starch in human nutrition. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae Aliment 14(1):57. https://doi.org/10.2478/ausal-2021-0004

 

Author Information

---

Nutrition Programme, Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia